Language and Dialect
Dialect : Variety of a languages that is a characteristic of a particular group of the languages speaker
The language–dialect situation along the border between the Netherlands and Germany is an interesting one. Historically, there was a continuum of dialects of one language, but the two that eventually became standardized as the languages of the Netherlands and Germany, Standard Dutch and Standard German, are not mutually intelligible, that is, a speaker of one cannot understand a speaker of the other. In the border area speakers of the local varieties of Dutch and German still exist within that dialect continuum and remain largely intelligibleto one another, yet the people on one side of the border say they speak a variety of Dutch and those on the other side say they speak a variety of German
Regional Dialects
Regional dialect is a distinct form of a languages spoken in a particular geographical area.
Regional dialect is variaty of languages that is spoken in geographical area for many hundred of years as seen in differences in pronouncations , in the choices and frm of the word and syntax.
The dialect–patois distinction actually seems to make more sense in some
situations, e.g., France, than in others Parisian French spread throughout France, and, even though that spread is still not yet complete (as visits to such parts of France as Brittany,
Provence, Corsica, and Alsace will confirm)
Patois is usually used to describe only rural forms of speech; we may talk about an urban dialect, but to talk about an urban patois seems strange. Patois also seems to refer only to the speech of the lower strata in society; again, we may talk about a middle-class dialect but not, apparently, about a middle-class patois. many Jamaicans refer to the popular spoken variety of Jamaican English as a patois rather than as a dialect..
Social Dialects
Social dialects is a variety of speech associated with a particular social class or occupational group within a society. Social dialect is differences in speech associated with various social group or place. various factors that can be used to determine social position, e.g., occupation, place of residence, education, ‘new’ versus ‘old’ money, income, racial or ethnic origin, cultural background, caste, religion, and so on.
Such factors as these do appear to be related fairly directly to how people speak
There is a British ‘public-school’ dialect, and there is an ‘African American Vernacular English’ dialect found in cities such as New York, Detroit, and Buffalo.
Styles, Registers, and Beliefs
The study of dialects is further complicated by the fact that speakers can adopt
different styles of speaking. You can speak very formally or very informally,
your choice being governed by circumstances
Register is another complicating factor in any study of language varieties.
Registers are sets of language items associated with discrete occupational or
social groups.
People participating in recurrent communication situations tend to develop similar
vocabularies, similar features of intonation, and characteristic bits of syntax
and phonology that they use in these situations.’ This kind of variety is a register.
register helps you to express your identity at a specific time or place, i.e., how you seek to present yourself to others.
Dialect, style, and register differences are largely independent: you can talk
casually about mountain climbing in a local variety of a language, or you can
write a formal technical study of wine making. You may also be judged to speak
‘better’ or ‘worse’ than other speakers who have much the same background
Lingua Francas
a lingua franca as ‘a language which is used habitually nby people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them.
a trade language (e.g., Hausa in West Africa or Swahili in East Africa);
a contact language (e.g., Greek koiné in the Ancient World);
an international language (e.g., English throughout much of our contemporary world); and an auxiliary language (e.g., Esperanto or Basic English).
a mixed language (e.g.,Mitchif in Canada )
Spoken as a second languges in other countries e.g., India and Philippines.
Other languages lingua franca, many languages troughout the history served as lingua franca are Chinese, french, Arabic, Chinook Jargon (American Indian)
Pidgin
A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but
is a contact language. the product of a multilingual situation in
which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language
system that will enable them to do so.
The process of pidginization probably requires a situation that involves at least
three language.
Pidginization is really a complex combination of different processes of change,
including reduction and simplification of input materials, internal innovation,
and regularization of structure, with L1 influence also playing a role.
For example, Pidgin Chinese English was used mainly by speakers of
different Chinese languages, and Tok Pisin is today used as a unifying language
among speakers of many different languages in Papua New Guinea
Creole
Creole is a pidgin that has become the first languages of a new generation of speaker.
Creolization is a process whre a pidgin expanded in structure and vocabulary in order to express the range of meanings and serve the range of functions required of a first languages
For instance: Jamaica creole is mixed with English and African. Instead of saying me they say mi. This sentence is written in Jamaica creole: Unu cya lissen to we mia say!
English : can you listen to what Iam saying!
Pidgins are distributed mainly in places with direct or easy to te oceans. They are found mainly in the caribbean and around the north and east coasts of sounth America and Afica.
Code
Codes is variety of languages , Diglossia Refers to a situation in which two dialects or languages are used by a single language community. In addition to the community’s every day or vernacular language variety (labeled “L” or “low” variety), a second, highly codified variety (labeled “H” or “high”) is used in certain situations such as literature, formal education, or other specific settings, but not used for ordinary conversation. The use of two markedly different varieties of a language in different social situations, such as a formal variety at work and an informal variety at home.
(E.g. Standard German with Low German (e.g., Plattdeutsch dialects),
Billingualism Bilingualism is the ability of an individual or the members of a community to use two languages effectively. • Bilingual speakers learn their languages either simultaneously, as they grow up, or sequentially, learning the second language after the first (usually at school). • The degree of proficiency bilingual people achieve in their languages often depends on the wider society’s attitudes to the languages concerned and the opportunities available to use them. • Bilingual speakers may use their languages equally, but they often use particular languages in particular contexts, for particular purposes, and with particular people
Multilingualism Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to communicate effectively in three or more languages. Contrast with monolingualism, the ability to use only one language.
e.g. “Majesty, the Herr Direttore, he has removed uno balletto that would have occurred at this place.” (Italian Kapellmeister Bonno in the film Amadeus (1984)—an example of multilingual code switching, quoted by Lukas Bleichenbacher in his thesis “Multilingualism in the Movies.” University of Zurich, 2007).
Code-switching Code switching is People, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code. Code switching (CS) occurs far more often in conversation than in writing.
n a multilingual country like Singapore, the ability to shift from one language to another is accepted as quite normal. Singapore has four official languages: English, the Mandarin variety of Chinese, Tamil, and Malay, which is also the
national language
Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to the situations in which the conversants find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is involved.
Speech Communities
The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of language elements, so much as by participation in a set of shared norms; these norms may be observed in overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns of variation which are invariant in respect to particular levels of usage.
English language is spoken in many places throughout the world, we must certainly recognize that it is also spoken in a wide variety of ways, in speech communities that are almost entirely isolated from one another, e.g., in South Africa, in New Zealand, and among expatriates in China. Alternatively, a recognizably single speech community can employ more than one language: Switzerland, Canada, Papua New Guinea, many African states, and New York City.
Intersecting Communities
Intersecting communities indicating the Speaker of places do use expressions indicates that they some idea of how a “typical” person from each place speaks – to be a member of a particular speech community some what loosely defined. E.g.: New York speech, London Speech, South African Speech.
We can illustrate this approach as follows. At home, a person may live in a bilingual setting and switch easily back and forth between two languages. She let this be a female person – may shop in one of the languages but work in the other.
Her accent in one of the languages may indicate that she can be classified as an immigrant to the society in which she lives, an immigrant, from a specific country.
Her accent in the other language shows her to be a native of region A in country B. Outside country B, however, as she now is, she regards herself (and others from B agree with her) as speaking not a A variety of B but as speaking B itself. She may also have had extensive technical training in her new country and in her second language and be quite unable to use her first language in work related to this specialty. In the course of the day, she will
switch her identification from one group to another, possibly even, as we saw in the preceding chapter, in the course of a single utterance. She belongs to one group at one moment and to a different one at another.
Networking And Repertoires
Networks and repertoires is show that a person can be part of various speech communities, some that intersect and some that do not. Certain individuals may be in one or more groups but not other.
speech repertoire for the repertoire of linguistic varieties utilized by a speech community. which its speakers.
A speaker’s choice of a particular sound, word, or expression marks that speaker in some way. It can say ‘I am like you’ or ‘I am not like you.’ When the speaker also has some kind of range within which to choose, and that choice itself helps to define the occasion, then many different outcomes are possible. A particular choice may say ‘I am an X just like you’ or it may say ‘I am an X but you are a Y.’ It may even be possible that a particular choice may say ‘Up till now I have been an X but from now on you must regard me as a Y,’
Regional Variation
dialects become new languages as speakers of the resulting varieties become unintelligible to one another. So Latin became French in France, Spanish in Spain, Italian in Italy, and so on. Dialect geographers have traditionally attempted to reproduce their findings on maps in what they call dialect atlas.
focal area is area linguistics that affect other languages.
relic area may show characteristics of being unaffected by changes spreading out from one
or more neighboring areas.
Places like London and Boston are obviously focal areas;
places like Martha’s Vineyard are relic area.
These have remained stops [p,t,k] in Low German but have become the fricatives [f,s,x] in High German (i.e., Modern Standard German), giving variant forms for ‘make’ [makvn], [maxvn]; ‘that’ [dat], [das]; ‘village’ [dorp], [dorf ]; and ‘I’ [ik], [ix]
The Ethnography of Speaking
The Setting and Scene (S) of speech are important. Setting refers to the time and place, i.e., the concrete physical circumstances in which speech takes place. Scene refers to the abstract psychological setting, or the cultural definition of the occasion.
The Participants (P) include various combinations of speaker–listener, addressor–addressee, or sender–receiver.
Ends (E) refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as to the personal goals that participants seek to accomplish on particular occasions.
Act sequence (A) refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise words used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at hand.
Key (K), the fifth term, refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on.
Instrumentalities (I) refers to the choice of channel, e.g., oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or register that is chosen.
Norms of interaction and interpretation (N) refers to the specific behaviors and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, e.g., loudness, silence, gaze return, and so on.
Genre (G), the final term, refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance; such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lectures, and editorials.
Tu and Vous
where grammatically there is a ‘singular you’ tu (T) and a ‘plural you’ vous (V) but usage requires that you use vous with individuals on certain occasions. The T form is sometimes described as the ‘familiar’ form and the V form as the ‘polite’ one. Other languages with a similar T/V distinction are Latin (tu/vos), Russian (ty/vy), Italian (tu/Lei), German (du/Sie), Swedish (du/ni), and Greek (esi/esis). English, itself, once had such a distinction, the thou/you distinction.
Symmetrical V usage became ‘polite’ usage. This polite usage spread downward in society, but not all the way down, so that in certain classes, but never the lowest, it became expected between husband and wife, parents and children, and lovers.
Symmetrical T usage was always available to show intimacy, and its use for that purpose also spread to situations in which two people agreed they had strong common interests, i.e., a feeling of solidarity.
Austin divides performatives into five categories:
(1) verdictives, typified by the giving of a verdict, estimate, grade, or appraisal (‘We find the accused guilty’);
(2) exercitives, the exercising of powers, rights, or influences as in appointing, ordering, warning, or advising (‘I pronounce you husband and wife’);
(3) commissives, typified by promising or undertaking, and committing one to do something by, for example, announcing an intention or espousing a cause (‘I hereby bequeath’);
(4) behabitives, having to do with such matters as apologizing, congratulating, blessing, cursing, or challenging (‘I apologize’); and
(5) expositives, a term used to refer to how one makes utterances fit into an argument or exposition (‘I argue,’ ‘I reply,’ or ‘I assume’).
Locutions is lingustics form . Illocutionary act is a speaker’s intention in delivering an utterance. Achieving pragmatic competence involves the ability to understand the illocutionary force of an utterance, that is, what a speaker intends by making it. The perlocutionary force of your words is to get me to bet, and you have
succeeded. A perlocutionary act is a speech act that produces an effect, intended or not, achieved in an addressee by speaker utterance.
Color
The terms people use to describe color give us another means of exploring the relationships between different languages and cultures. All languages make use of basic color terms. A basic color term must be asingle word, e.g., blue or yellow, not some combination of words, e.g., light blue or pale yellow. Nor must it be the obvious sub-division of some higher-order term, as both crimson and scarlet are of red.
According to Berlin and Kay, an analysis of the basic color terms found in a wide variety of languages reveals certain very interesting patterns. If a language has only two terms, they are for equivalents to black and white (or dark and light). If a third is added, it is red. The fourth and fifth terms will be yellow and green, but the order may be reversed. The sixth and seventh terms are blue and brown. Finally, as in English, come terms like gray, pink, orange, and purple, but not in any particular order. All other terms for colors are combinations like grayish-brown, variations like scarlet, modifications like fire-engine red, and finally the kinds of designations favored by paint and cosmetic manufacturers.
Prototypes
a prototype of a category are the ones that the relevant categorization
‘prototypical bird’ is something more like a robin than it is like a toucan, penguin, ostrich, or even eagle.
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